elementary-school age

1) Medicine: midchildhood

2) Economy: primary school age

3) Advertising: elementary-school age

f primary school, Am. auch elementary ( oder grade) school

* * *

elementary school; grade school; grammar school; primary school

* * *

* * *

* * *

f primary [or AM elementary] [or AM grade] school

* * *

* * *

Grundschule f primary school, US auch elementary ( oder grade) school

* * *

* * *

elementary school (US) n.

elementary school n.

grade school (US) n.

primary school n.

f school

scuola di lingue language school

scuola elementare primary school

scuola media secondary school

scuola parificata private school officially recognized by the state

scuola serale evening classes pl

scuola superiore high school

scuola guida driving school

andare a scuola go to school

* * *

scuola s.f.

1 school; ( istruzione) education: scuola materna, nursery school; scuola elementare, primary (o elementary) school; scuola media inferiore, secondary school (o amer. junior high school); scuola media superiore, secondary school (o amer. high school); scuola mista, mixed school; scuola parificata, state-recognised private school; scuola parrocchiale, parish school; scuola privata, private school; scuola pubblica, state school; scuola dell'obbligo, compulsory education; scuola rurale, rural (o village) school; scuola a tempo pieno, full-time school; scuola diurna, day-classes; scuola serale, evening classes (o evening school); scuola all'aperto, open-air school; scuola magistrale, (teachers) training college; scuola tecnica, technical school; scuola commerciale, commercial school (o school of commerce); scuola aziendale, business school; scuola professionale, vocational (o trade) school; scuola di economia, school of economics; scuola di ballo, dancing school; scuola di disegno, drawing (o art) school; scuola di equitazione, riding school; scuola di scherma, fencing school; scuola di taglio, school of dress-making; compagno di scuola, school-friend (o schoolfellow o schoolmate); maestra di scuola, schoolmistress (o schoolteacher); maestro di scuola, schoolmaster (o schoolteacher); andare a scuola, to go to school; quando riapre la scuola?, when will school start again?; lasciare la scuola, to leave school; la scuola non gli piace, he does not like school // marinare la scuola, to play truant // cantiere scuola, workshop // nave scuola, training ship // alta scuola, haute école

2 ( lezione) school, lesson (anche fig.); ( esempio) example: ieri non avemmo scuola, yesterday we had no lessons (o school); faccio scuola dalle 17 alle 21, I teach from 5 o'clock to 9 o'clock; questo periodo all'estero sarà un'ottima scuola per lui, this period abroad will be a very good experience for him; la scuola dell'esperienza, the school of experience; ciò ti serva di scuola, let this be a lesson (o an example) to you // seguire la scuola di qlcu., to follow s.o.'s example

3 (arte, fil., scient.) school: (pitt.) la scuola fiamminga, fiorentina, the Dutch, Florentine school; (lett.) la scuola romantica, the Romantic school; (fil.) la scuola socratica, platonica, the Socratic, Platonic school // cresciuto alla scuola del materialismo, reared in the school of materialism // appartiene alla vecchia scuola, he belongs to the old school // fare scuola, to create a school (o to set a fashion).

* * *

1. sf

(istituzione, edificio) school

- scuola guida

- scuola dell'infanzia

- scuola dell'obbligo

- scuola primaria

- scuola privata

- scuola secondaria di primo grado

- scuola pubblica

- scuola secondaria di secondo grado

- scuola serale

2. agg inv

* * *

sostantivo femminile

1) school

2) (sistema) education (system)

3) (fonte di formazione) school (di of), training (di for, in)

4) art. letter. filos. school

•

••

* * *

scuola

/'skwɔla/

sostantivo f.

 1 school; essere, andare a scuola to be at, to go to school; la scuola è finita school is over; fin dai tempi della scuola since one's schooldays; avere scuola (lezione) to have school

 2 (sistema) education (system); riformare la scuola to reform the education system

 3 (fonte di formazione) school (di of), training (di for, in); scuola di vita school of hard knocks, university of life, training for life; della vecchia scuola of the old school

 4 art. letter. filos. school; scuola fiamminga Dutch School; scuola di pensiero school of thought

IDIOMS

fare scuola (insegnare) to teach (school); (avere seguaci) to gain a following

\

COMPOUNDS

scuola alberghiera hotel-management school; scuola di ballo dancing school; scuola per corrispondenza correspondence college; scuola di danza ballet school; scuola elementare primary o elementary school, grade school AE; scuola guida driving school; scuola di lingue school of languages, language school; scuola magistrale = formerly, high school specializing in education; scuola materna nursery school, kindergarten, preschool AE; scuola media inferiore = three years post elementary course, middle school BE, junior high school AE; scuola media superiore = course of studies following middle school/junior high school and preceding university; scuola dell'obbligo compulsory education; scuola privata private school; scuola professionale vocational school; scuola pubblica state school, public school AE; scuola secondaria →  scuola superiore; scuola serale evening school, night school; scuola di stato o statale state school; scuola superiore secondary school.

principal, primary.

primary school, elementary school, grade school, grammar school.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 primary education

* * *

f., (m. - primario)

* * *

1) (Educ) primary education

2) (Pol) (tb: primarias) primary election(s)

* * *

1) (Educ) elementary o (BrE) primary education

2) (Pol) ( en EEUU) primary

* * *

1) (Educ) elementary o (BrE) primary education

2) (Pol) ( en EEUU) primary

* * *

primaria¹

¹ = primary school.

primaria²

² = primary election.

* * *

The name given in Spain to the first of the two compulsory levels of education. It is for pupils between six and twelve years of age and leads to the ESO - Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (↑ ESO a1).

* * *

1ª persona singular (yo) condicional indicativo

3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) condicional indicativo

◊ debería primaria el interés público the public interest should be (a) top priority;

* * *

primaria nf

1. [enseñanza] primary education

2.

* * *

primaria n primary education

nursery, day care center, day care, day nursery.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 crèche, nursery

2 (oficio de guarda) keeping

\

guardería infantil nursery, nursery school

* * *

SF (tb: guardería infantil) nursery, day nursery, day-care centre o (EEUU) center; [en empresa, tienda] crèche

* * *

femenino: tb

* * *

= kindergarten, playgroup, day-care centre.

Ex. Rather more seriously and difficult is the problem of the stages of the educational system: preschool, nursery, kindergarten, elementary, etc.

Ex. This institution offers not only a wide range of information but also the facility of a meeting room, a drop-in lounge for social gatherings, meetings, workshops, exhibitions, displays, playgroups, coffee breaks, informal chats, seminars, study groups, films and slide shows.

Ex. Parents have the right to know when pesticides are sprayed at many private day-care centers under a state law that took effect on Monday.

----

* guardería de la empresa = workplace crêche.

* guardería infantil = day-care centre.

* * *

femenino: tb

* * *

* * *

guardería guardería (↑ guardería a1)

tb guardería infantil nursery school, crèche ( BrE)

In Spain, a center for small children. Guarderías normally look after children from a few months old until the age of four, or sometimes up to the compulsory school age of six. Some guarderías are private, while some are run and subsidized by the local authority or the government. Parents pay for the service.

* * *

◊ guardería infantil nursery

* * *

guardería nf

* * *

f nursery

* * *

guardería nf

: nursery, day-care center

* * *

guardería n nursery [pl. nurseries]

école [ekɔl]

1. feminine noun

   a. ( = établissement) school

• l'école reprend dans une semaine school starts again in a week's time

• aller à l'école [élève] to go to school ; [visiteur] to go to the school

• envoyer or mettre un enfant à l'école to send a child to school

• grande école prestigious higher education institute with competitive entrance examination → GRANDES ÉCOLES

• il va à la grande école (inf) ( = école primaire) he goes to primary school

   b. ( = enseignement) schooling ; ( = système scolaire) school system

• l'école gratuite free education

• l'école en France the French school system

• les partisans de l'école laïque the supporters of secular state education

   c. ( = mouvement artistique, de pensée) school

• un peintre de l'école florentine a painter of the Florentine School

   d. (figurative) être à bonne école to be in good hands

• il a été à rude école he learned about life the hard way

• faire école [personne] to acquire a following ; [théorie] to gain widespread acceptance

• il est de la vieille école he is one of the old school

2. compounds

► école des Beaux-Arts ≈ art college

► école buissonnière

• faire l'école buissonnière to play truant (Brit) or hooky (US) ► École centrale prestigious college of engineering

► école de commerce business school

► école de conduite driving school

► école de danse dancing school ; (classique) ballet school

► école de dessin art school

► école élémentaire elementary school

► école hôtelière catering school

► école libre denominational school

► école militaire military academy

► École nationale d'administration prestigious college training senior civil servants

► école de neige ski school

► École normale ≈ teacher training college → GRANDES ÉCOLES

► École normale supérieure grande école for training of teachers

► école de pensée school of thought

► école de police police academy

━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━

Nursery school ( l'école maternelle) is publicly funded in France and, though not compulsory, is attended by most children between the ages of three and six. Statutory education begins with primary (grade) school (« l'école primaire ») and is attended by children between the ages of six and 10 or 11.

━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━

The École nationale d'administration or ÉNA, in Strasbourg (formerly in Paris), is a competitive-entrance college training top civil servants. Because so many ministers and high-ranking decision-makers are « énarques » (ex-students of ÉNA), the school has often been criticized for exercising too much influence, and French political life is perceived by some as being monopolized by the so-called « énarchie ». → CONCOURS

* * *

* * *

1) school

2)

* * *

école nf

1 Scol ( établissement) school; être à l'école to be at GB ou in US school; aller à l'école to go to school; le directeur a réuni toute l'école the headteacher assembled the whole school; école de garçons/filles boys'/girls' school; enfants des écoles schoolchildren; la grande/petite école primary/nursery school;

2 ( enseignement) school; l'école est finie school is over; avoir école to have school; mettre un enfant à l'école to send a child to school; dès l'école from the very first days at school; quitter l'école à 16 ans to leave school at 16;

3 ( système) education system; réformer l'école to reform the education system;

4 Univ (grande) école higher education institution with competitive entrance examination; une école d'ingénieurs a Grande École of Engineering; une école de commerce a business school;

5 ( source de formation) training (de in); la lexicographie est une école de patience lexicography is a training in patience; être à bonne école to be in good hands; être de la vieille école to be of the old school; l'école de la vie the university of life;

6 ( mouvement) school; école flamande/romantique Flemish/Romantic school; école de pensée school of thought; faire école to gain a following.

école communale local school; école de conduite driving school; école de danse dancing school; école élémentaire primary school; école de gestion Univ business school, school of business and management GB; école hôtelière hotel management school; école d'infirmières nursing college; école de journalisme school of journalism; école de langues language school; école libre ( système) independent education; ( établissement) independent school; école maternelle nursery school; école militaire military academy; école de musique music school; école normale, EN primary teacher training college; école obligatoire compulsory schooling; école parallèle progressive school GB, alternative school; école de pilotage flying school; école de police police college GB, police academy US; école primaire primary school; école privée private school; école professionnelle training college; école publique ( établissement) state school GB, public school US; ( système) state education GB, public education US; école de secrétariat secretarial college; École centrale des arts et manufactures, Centrale○ Grande École of Engineering; École des chartes, les Chartes○ School of Palaeography and Archival Studies; École des Mines, les Mines○ Grande École of Mining Studies; École nationale d'administration, ENA Grande École of Public Management; École nationale des ponts et chaussées, les Ponts et chaussées○, les Ponts○ Grande École of Civil Engineering; École nationale supérieure des arts et métiers, les Arts et métiers○, les Arts○, ENSAM Grande École of Engineering; École normale supérieure, ENS Grande École preparing teachers for higher education.École The French school system has three tiers: l'école maternelle (from the age of two); l'école primaire comprising cours préparatoire (CP), cours élémentaire 1 et 2 ( CE1, CE2), cours moyen 1 et 2 ( CM1, CM2); and l'école secondaire ( collège and lycée). School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16.

[ekɔl] nom féminin

1. [établissement] school

2. [cours] school

3. [système]

4. [collège supérieur]

École nationale d'administration → link=ENA ENA

École normale supérieure prestigious grande école for teachers and researchers → link=grand grand

5. [lieu spécialisé] school

6. [pédagogie]

7. [disciples] school

8. (figuré)

The separation of Church and State, which reflects the republican ideal and became law in 1905, is an important aspect of French culture. Since that date State education has been independent of the Church, and explicitly excludes religious instruction and religious ceremony.

premier, -ière¹ [pʀəmje, jεʀ]

1. adjective

   a. (dans le temps, un ordre) first ; (en importance) leading

• les premières heures du jour the early hours

• dès les premiers jours from the earliest days

• ses premiers poèmes his early poems

• les premières années de sa vie the first few years of his life

• le premier constructeur automobile européen the leading European car manufacturer

• le premier personnage de l'État the country's leading statesman

• arriver/être premier to arrive/be first

• il est toujours premier en classe he's always top of the class

• être reçu premier to come first

• il est sorti premier à l'examen he came top in the exam

   b. (dans l'espace) [branche] bottom ; [rangée] front

• la première marche de l'escalier (en bas) the bottom step ; (en haut) the top step

• les 100 premières pages the first 100 pages

• en première page (Press) on the front page

• lire un livre de la première à la dernière ligne to read a book from cover to cover

   c. ( = de base) [échelon, grade] bottom ; [ébauche, projet] first

• quel est votre premier prix pour ce type de voyage ? what do your prices start at for this kind of trip?

   d. ( = originel, fondamental) [cause, donnée, principe] basic ; [objectif] primary ; [état] initial, original

2. masculine noun, feminine noun

   a. (dans le temps, l'espace) first

• parler/passer/sortir le premier to speak/go/go out first

• arriver les premiers to arrive first

• arriver dans les premiers to be one of the first to arrive

• il a été le premier à reconnaître ses torts he was the first to admit that he was in the wrong

• elle fut l'une des premières à... she was one of the first to...

   b. (dans une hiérarchie, un ordre) il a été reçu dans les premiers he was in the top few

• il est le premier de sa classe he is top of his class

   c. (dans une série, une comparaison) Pierre et Paul sont cousins, le premier est médecin Peter and Paul are cousins, the former is a doctor

3. masculine noun

   a. first

• c'est leur premier ( = enfant) it's their first child

• mon premier est... (charade) my first is in...

► en premier [arriver, parler] first

• je l'ai servi en premier I served him first

• pour lui, la famille vient toujours en premier his family always comes first

   b. ( = étage) first floor (Brit), second floor (US)

4. compounds

► le premier de l'an New Year's Day

* * *

- ière pʀəmje, ɛʀ adjectif

1) ( dans le temps) first

2) ( dans l'espace) first

3) ( dans une série) first

4) ( dans une hiérarchie) [artiste, écrivain, puissance] leading; [élève, étudiant] top

5) ( originel) [impression] first, initial; [éclat] initial; [aspect] original

6) ( essentiel) [qualité] prime; [objectif, conséquence] primary

7) Philosophie [terme, notion, donnée] fundamental; [vérité, principe] first

nom masculin, féminin

1) ( dans le temps) first

2) ( dans une énumération) first

3) ( dans un classement)

nom masculin

1) ( dans un bâtiment) first floor GB, second floor US

2) ( jour du mois) first

3) ( arrondissement) first arrondissement

en premier locution adverbiale

de première (colloq) locution adjective first-rate

- premier âge

- premier de cordée

- premier danseur

- premier jet

- premier ministre

- le premier venu

- première nouvelle!

- premiers secours

* * *

1. adj

1) (dans le temps) first

2) (du bas) (branche, marche, grade) lowest, bottom

3) (en importance) first

4) (= fondamental) basic

5)

2. nm

1) (= premier étage) first floor Grande-Bretagne second floor USA

2) (= personne)

3) (= jour)

4)

3. nf

1) (= personne)

2) AUTOMOBILES (= vitesse) first, first gear

3) CHEMINS DE FER, AVIATION (= classe) first class

4) ÉDUCATION (= classe) Year 12

5) [spectacle] THÉÂTRE first night, CINÉMA première

6) (chose faite pour la première fois) first

* * *

premier, - ière ⇒ La date, Les nombres

A adj

1 ( qui commence une série) [habitant, emploi, automobile, symptôme] first; Adam fut le premier homme Adam was the first man; c'est la première fois que je viens ici this is the first time I've been here; la première et la dernière fois the first and last time; les premiers temps de the initial period of; (dans) les premiers temps tout allait bien at first things went well;

2 ( qui précède dans l'espace) [porte, rue, visage, carrefour] first; les trois premières rues the first three streets; les premières marches (de l'escalier) the first few steps;

3 ( dans une série) [numéro, chapitre, mot, candidat] first; première personne du singulier/du pluriel first person singular/plural; le premier janvier/juin the first of January/of June; article premier du code pénal first article of the penal code; ‘livre premier’ ‘book one’; Napoléon I^er Napoleon I ou the First; Elisabeth I^re Elizabeth I ou the First;

4 ( par sa supériorité) [artiste, écrivain, producteur, puissance] leading; [élève, étudiant] top; le premier producteur mondial de vin the world's leading wine producer; être premier [élève, étudiant] to be top; [coureur] to be first; il est premier en physique he's top in physics; terminer or arriver premier [coureur] to come first; une affaire de première importance/urgence a matter of the utmost importance/urgency; article de première nécessité an absolutely essential item;

5 ( par son infériorité) [billet, ticket, place] cheapest; nos premiers prix or tarifs ( pour voyages) our cheapest holidays GB ou package tours US; ( pour billets) our cheapest tickets;

6 ( originel) [impression] first, initial; [vivacité, éclat] initial; [aspect] original; recouvrer sa santé première to recover one's health;

7 ( essentiel) [qualité] prime; [objectif] primary, basic; [conséquence] primary, main;

8 Philos [terme, notion, proposition, donnée] basic, fundamental; [vérité, principe] first.

B nm,f

1 ( qui se présente d'abord) first; vous êtes le premier à me le dire you are the first to tell me; il est toujours le premier à se plaindre he's always the first to complain; sortir le premier to go out first; arriver le premier, arriver les premiers to arrive first; les premiers arrivés seront les premiers servis first come, first served;

2 ( dans une énumération) first; je préfère le premier I prefer the first one; le premier de mes fils ( sur deux fils) my elder son; ( sur plus de deux fils) my eldest son;

3 ( dans un classement) arriver le premier [coureur] to come first; être le premier de la classe [élève] to be top of the class; il est le premier en latin he's top in Latin.

C nm

1 ( dans un bâtiment) first floor GB, second floor US; monter/descendre au premier to go up/to go down to the first GB ou second US floor; habiter au premier to live on the first GB ou second US floor;

2 ( jour du mois) first; être payé tous les premiers du mois to be paid on the first of every month; le premier de l'an New Year's Day;

3 ( arrondissement) first arrondissement; habiter dans le premier to live in the first arrondissement;

4 ( dans une charade) first; mon premier est my first is.

D en premier loc adv faire qch en premier to do sth first; faire passer son travail en premier to put one's work first; recourir à l'arme nucléaire en premier to resort to nuclear weapons in the first instance; citons en premier le livre de notre collègue first of all there's our colleague's book; il faut en premier baisser l'impôt sur les bénéfices first of all it is necessary to reduce taxes on profits.

E première nf

1 (événement important, exploit) first; première mondiale world first;

2 Théât, Cin première;

3 Scol Univ sixth year of secondary school, age 16-17;

4 Aut first (gear); être en première to be in first (gear); passer la première to go into first (gear); rouler en première to drive in first (gear);

5 ○ Rail, Aviat first class; voyager en première to travel first class; un billet de première a first-class ticket;

6 ( couturière dirigeant un atelier) head seamstress;

7 ( en alpinisme) first ascent; premier solitaire first solo-ascent;

8 ( dans une chaussure) insole.

F de première○ loc adj first-rate; c'est de première it's first-class ou first-rate.

premier âge [produits, vêtements] for babies up to six months ( après n); premier clerc chief clerk; premier communiant boy making his first communion; premier de cordée leader; premier danseur leading dancer; premier jet first ou rough draft; premier maître intermediate rank between chief petty officer and fleet chief petty officer GB, ≈ master chief petty officer US; premier ministre prime minister; premier secrétaire (d'un parti, organisme) first secretary; premier venu just anybody; elle s'est jetée dans les bras du premier venu she threw herself into the arms of the first man to come along; premier violon Mus first violin, leader; première classe Mil ≈ private; première communiante Relig girl making her first communion; première communion Relig first communion; première épreuve Imprim first proof; première nouvelle! that's the first I've heard about it; premiers secours first aid ¢.

ⓘ Premier ministre The chief minister of the government, appointed by the Président de la République and responsible for the overall management of government affairs.

( féminin première) [prəmje, ɛr] adjectif numéral

1. (souvent avant le nom) [initial] early

2. [proche] nearest

a. CINÉMA & THÉÂTRE in the first ou front row

b. ÉDUCATION in the first row

3. [à venir] next, first

4. [dans une série] first

a. [personnes et matériel] emergency services

b. [soins] first aid

a. [généralement] first part

b. [au spectacle] opening act

5. [principal] main

6. [haut placé - clerc, commis] chief ; [ - danseur] leading

7. (après le nom) [originel] first, original, initial

8. [spontané] first

9. (après le nom) [fondamental] first

MATHÉMATIQUES [nombre] prime

[polynôme] irreducible

10. [moindre]

11. GRAMMAIRE

voir aussi link=pluriel pluriel

12. CUISINE

côte/côtelette première prime rib/cutlet

————————

, première [prəmje, ɛr] nom masculin, nom féminin

1. [personne]

2. [chose]

3. [celui-là]

voir aussi link=cinquième cinquième

————————

nom masculin

1. [dans une charade]

2. [étage] first floor (UK), second floor (US)

3. [dans des dates]

le premier janvier ou de l'an New Year's Day

————————

première nom féminin

1. CINÉMA & THÉÂTRE first night, opening night

2. [exploit]

3. ÉDUCATION lower sixth (form) (UK), eleventh grade (US)

4. AUTOMOBILE first (gear)

5. TRANSPORTS first class

6. COUTURE head seamstress

7. DANSE first (position)

8. IMPRIMERIE [épreuve] first proof

[édition - d'un livre] first edition ; [ - d'un journal] early edition

9. [d'une chaussure] insole

————————

de première locution adjectivale

un imbécile de première (ironique) a prize idiot

————————

en premier locution adverbiale

premier de cordée nom masculin

leader (of a roped climbing team)

————————

premier degré nom masculin

1. ÉDUCATION primary (UK) ou elementary (US) education

2. [phase initiale] first step

3. (figuré)

des gags à ne pas prendre au premier degré jokes which mustn't be taken at face value

————————

premier prix nom masculin

1. COMMERCE lowest ou cheapest price

2. [récompense] first prize

f

1. enrol(l)ment; ein Kind von der Einschulung zurückstellen postpone the date a child starts school

2. (Tag) first day at school

* * *

* * *

f enrolment [or AM enrollment] at [primary] school

die \Einschulung erfolgt meist mit 6 Jahren most children start school at 6

* * *

Einschulung f

1. enrol(l)ment;

ein Kind von der Einschulung zurückstellen postpone the date a child starts school

2. (Tag) first day at school

* * *

enrollment (at elementary school) n.

first day at school n.

(в разн. знач.) school; (о здании тж.) schoolhouse*

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

[br]

[br]

[br]

James Nasmyth was the youngest son of Alexander Nasmyth (1758–1840), the portrait and landscape painter. According to his autobiography he was named James Hall after his father's friend, the geologist Sir James Hall (1761–1832), but he seems never to have used his second name in official documents. He received an elementary education at Edinburgh High School, but left at the age of 12. He attended evening classes at the Edinburgh School of Arts for the instruction of Mechanics between 1821 and 1825, and gained experience as a mechanic at an early age in his father's workshop. He shared these early experiences with his brother George, who was only a year or so older, and in the 1820s the brothers built several model steam engines and a steam-carriage capable of carrying eight passengers on the public roads. In 1829 Nasmyth obtained a position in London as personal assistant to Henry Maudslay, and after Maudslay's death in February 1831 he remained with Maudslay's partner, Joshua Field, for a short time. He then returned to Edinburgh, where he and his brother George started in a small way as general engineers. In 1834 they moved to a small workshop in Manchester, and in 1836, with the aid of financial backing from some Manchester businessmen, they established on a site at Patricroft, a few miles from the city, the works which became known as the Bridgewater Foundry. They were soon joined by a third partner, Holbrook Gaskell (1813–1909), who looked after the administration of the business, the firm then being known as Nasmyths Gaskell \& Co. They specialized in making machine tools, and Nasmyth invented many improvements so that they soon became one of the leading manufacturers in this field. They also made steam locomotives for the rapidly developing railways. James Nasmyth's best-known invention was the steam-hammer, which dates from 1839 but was not patented until 1842. The self-acting control gear was probably the work of Robert Wilson and ensured the commercial success of the invention. George Nasmyth resigned from the partnership in 1843 and in 1850 Gaskell also resigned, after which the firm continued as James Nasmyth \& Co. James Nasmyth himself retired at the end of 1856 and went to live at Penshurst, Kent, in a house which he named "Hammerfield" where he devoted his time mainly to his hobby of astronomy. Robert Wilson returned to become Managing Partner of the firm, which later became Nasmyth, Wilson \& Co. and retained that style until its closure in 1940. Nasmyth's claim to be the sole inventor of the steam-hammer has been disputed, but his patent of 1842 was not challenged and the fourteen-year monopoly ensured the prosperity of the business so that he was able to retire at the age of 48. At his death in 1890 he left an estate valued at £243,805.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

Richard Roberts was the son of a shoemaker and tollkeeper and received only an elementary education at the village school. At the age of 10 his interest in mechanics was stimulated when he was allowed by the Curate, the Revd Griffith Howell, to use his lathe and other tools. As a young man Roberts acquired a considerable local reputation for his mechanical skills, but these were exercised only in his spare time. For many years he worked in the local limestone quarries, until at the age of 20 he obtained employment as a pattern-maker in Staffordshire. In the next few years he worked as a mechanic in Liverpool, Manchester and Salford before moving in 1814 to London, where he obtained employment with Henry Maudslay. In 1816 he set up on his own account in Manchester. He soon established a reputation there for gear-cutting and other general engineering work, especially for the textile industry, and by 1821 he was employing about twelve men. He built machine tools mainly for his own use, including, in 1817, one of the first planing machines.

One of his first inventions was a gas meter, but his first patent was obtained in 1822 for improvements in looms. His most important contribution to textile technology was his invention of the self-acting spinning mule, patented in 1825. The normal fourteen-year term of this patent was extended in 1839 by a further seven years. Between 1826 and 1828 Roberts paid several visits to Alsace, France, arranging cottonspinning machinery for a new factory at Mulhouse. By 1826 he had become a partner in the firm of Sharp Brothers, the company then becoming Sharp, Roberts \& Co. The firm continued to build textile machinery, and in the 1830s it built locomotive engines for the newly created railways and made one experimental steam-carriage for use on roads. The partnership was dissolved in 1843, the Sharps establishing a new works to continue locomotive building while Roberts retained the existing factory, known as the Globe Works, where he soon after took as partners R.G.Dobinson and Benjamin Fothergill (1802–79). This partnership was dissolved c. 1851, and Roberts continued in business on his own for a few years before moving to London as a consulting engineer.

During the 1840s and 1850s Roberts produced many new inventions in a variety of fields, including machine tools, clocks and watches, textile machinery, pumps and ships. One of these was a machine controlled by a punched-card system similar to the Jacquard loom for punching rivet holes in plates. This was used in the construction of the Conway and Menai Straits tubular bridges. Roberts was granted twenty-six patents, many of which, before the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, covered more than one invention; there were still other inventions he did not patent. He made his contribution to the discussion which led up to the 1852 Act by publishing, in 1830 and 1833, pamphlets suggesting reform of the Patent Law.

In the early 1820s Roberts helped to establish the Manchester Mechanics' Institute, and in 1823 he was elected a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. He frequently contributed to their proceedings and in 1861 he was made an Honorary Member. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1838. From 1838 to 1843 he served as a councillor of the then-new Municipal Borough of Manchester. In his final years, without the assistance of business partners, Roberts suffered financial difficulties, and at the time of his death a fund for his aid was being raised.

[br]